The Smithsonian Institution Building, also known as the Castle, was designed by James Renwick, and built between 1847 and 1855 on the Mall in Washington.<BR> The Smithsonian Institution was founded in 1846 due to a generous donation by James Smithson, an English scientist.<BR> The Congressional charter established a Board of Regents that was to build a "suitable building of plain and durable materials and structure, without unnecessary ornament, and of sufficient size, and with suitable rooms or halls, for the reception and arrangement, upon a liberal scale of objects…" The items that were to be exhibited were concerned with natural history, art and objects of "foreign and curios research".<BR> The fist Secretary was Joseph Henry who lived in the Castle. For many years the building was home to all operations of the Smithsonian Institution, including an exhibition hall from 1858 until the 1960s.<BR> Today the Castle is home to administrative offices and the Information Centre, The Smithsonian is composed of 16 museums, among them the American Indian Museum, and the National Zoo and it has about 140 million artifacts. <BR> <BR> http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/travel/wash/dc74.htm (16-1-2007)<BR> <BR> Postcards<BR> Theme: Present-day (20th century)<BR> <BR> Before European contact most North American tribes had little or no contact with other tribes. They were seen as outsiders and not regarded as humans. This started to change when the Europeans set foot in North America. Around 1700 alliances and confederations of different tribes were formed in the East. They began to see the European invaders as different from themselves. On the Plains the mobility of the horse increased contact between the different tribes. This was the begining of Pan-Indianism. Soon a new identity of "Indian" was created.<BR> With it also came Pan-Indian religion such as the Native American Church and the Shaker Religion. This Pan-Indianism would be an important factor in the Indian resitance of the 1960s when several different groups would join together in action.<BR> In 1934 the Indian Reorganisation Act replaced the Allotment Act. Collectively holding of land was restored and tribes were treated as equal partners. The Act also provided better education, healthcare and freedom of religion. Unfortunately the start of World War II ended funds necessary for these projects. <BR> During World War II Indians began to migrate to the cities hoping to find work there in the war industries or as a soldier in the army. In the 1950s the government started assimilation, termination and relocation policies. By terminating reservations the government tried to assimilate the Indian population. The Termination Bill of 1953 failed and development programs like those of befor World War II replaced the termination. Relocation was an other policy. Migration to cities was seen as a positive factor in the assimilation of Indians. The BIA started a program to speed things up. Indians were trained and helped with finding employment. But because of discrimination and failing to adjust to the city many Indians returned to the reservations.<BR> On the reservations unemployment continued to increase. Education levels were low and education was mostly provided by non-Indian schools. Their education programs focused on the savageness of Indians, giving Indian students a low self esteem.<BR> Housing was bad; there was no electricity, water or gas. Healthcare was also a problem. Indians were disciminated in hospitals and had bearly enough to eat. Alcohol abuse increased and with that also criminality. Indians were more often send to prison for drunkness than non-Indians. They were often abused in jail and suicide was not uncommon.<BR> The 1960s were marked by Indian resistance. They wanted the responsibility for education and tried to get attention for the broken treaties. In 1972 members of several tribes marched to Washington. The "Trail of Broken Treaties" ended with the occupation of the BIA. <BR> Urban Indians were by now well settled in the cities and started their own Indian centres. These organisations wanted the Indian cultural and legal status acknowledged. Especially young people were involved in organisations, like AIM. In 1973 AIM occupied Wounded Knee to draw the attention to several murders of Indians that were not investigated by the FBI. The occupation ended with a promise from the government that they would investigate the treaties more carefully and allow more Indian involvement in Indian policy.<BR> Indians today want more autonomy in education, healthcare and housing. They want to continue living in ways that best suit them by using non-Indian institutions and technology the way they see fit.<BR> <BR> Pieter Hovens: Indianen van Noord-Amerika (1977 Van Gorcum, Assen/Amsterdam) p. 88-94, 100-107, 111-117<BR> Alan L. Sorkin: The Urban American Indian (1978 D.C. Heath and Company, Lexington, Massachusetts Toronto) p. 1-4<BR> Deward E. Walker Jr.: The Emergent Native Americans - A Reader in Culture Contact (1971 Little, Brown and Company, Boston) p. 739-742<BR>